Kungani Ukunakekelwa Kwezempilo Kuholela Kumagrafu Olwazi

Qaphela 2: Zonke izithombe ngombhali

Engxenyeni yoku-1, sichaze ukuthi ulwazi oluhlelekile lunike amandla kanjani ukuqhubeka kokunakekelwa kwezempilo. Lesi sihloko sihlola ukuthi kungani ukunakekelwa kwezempilo, ngaphezu kwanoma iyiphi enye imboni, yakwazi ukwakha leso sakhiwo ngezinga.

Ukunakekelwa kwezempilo imboni evuthwe kakhulu ekusebenziseni amagrafu olwazi ngezizathu ezimbalwa ezibalulekile. Emgogodleni wawo, ezokwelapha zisekelwe kusayensi ye-empirical (biology, chemistry, pharmacology) eyenza kube nokwenzeka ukusungula ukuqonda okuhlanganyelwe kwezinhlobo zezinto ezikhona, ukuthi zixhumana kanjani, kanye nembangela. Ngamanye amazwi, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kuziboleka ngokwemvelo i-ontology.

Imboni iphinde izuze esikweni elijulile lokwabelana amagama alawulwayo. Ososayensi nodokotela bangabasebenzi bemitapo yemvelo. Ngokwesidingo, babhala ngokucophelela futhi bahlukanise yonke into abangayithola, kusukela ezakhini zofuzo kuye ezifweni. Lokhu kugcizelelwa ekuhlukaniseni kuqiniswa ukuzibophezela ku-empirical, okuphindaphindekayo ukuqaphelalapho idatha kufanele iqhathaniswe kuzo zonke izikhungo, izifundo, nesikhathi.

Okokugcina, kukhona amandla esakhiwo asheshise ukuvuthwa: aqinile umthethonqubo; eqinile pre-ukuncintisana ukusebenzisana; isekelwe uxhaso lukahulumeni; futhi vula amazinga edatha. Zonke lezi zici zigqugquzela amazinga okwabelwana ngawo kanye nolwazi olusebenziseka kabusha esikhundleni samamodeli ahlukene, aphathelene nokuphathelene.

Ngokuhlangene, lezi zici zidale izimo zokunakekelwa kwezempilo ukuze kwakhiwe ingqalasizinda ye-semantic ehlala njalo, eyabiwe—evumela ulwazi ukuthi luqongelele kuzo zonke izikhungo, izizukulwane, kanye nobuchwepheshe.

I-Ontology

Abantu bebelokhu bezama ukuqonda ukuthi umhlaba usebenza kanjani. Uma sibheka futhi sibika into efanayo ngokuphindaphindiwe, futhi sivuma ukuthi iyiqiniso, sihlakulela ukuqonda okuhlanganyelwe kweqiniso. Le nqubo yenziwa ngokusemthethweni kusayensi kusetshenziswa indlela yesayensi. Ososayensi bakha i-hypothesis, benza isilingo, futhi bahlole imiphumela ngokuqinisekisayo. Ngale ndlela, abantu sebenezinkulungwane zeminyaka bethuthukisa i-ontology yezokwelapha engacacile.

U-Otzi, u-caveman owatholwa ngo-1991, owaphila eminyakeni engu-5,300 edlule, watholwa enesikhunta esilwa namagciwane emilenzeni yakhe, okungenzeka ukuthi ukwelapha isifo sakhe se-whipworm (Kirsch no-Ogas 4). Ngisho nama-cavemen ayenokuqonda okuthile ukuthi izitshalo zingasetshenziswa ukwelapha izifo.

Ekugcineni, ososayensi baqaphela ukuthi kwakungesona isitshalo ngokwaso eselaphe lesi sifo, kodwa izinhlanganisela ngaphakathi kwesitshalo, nokuthi babekwazi ukuphazamisa ukwakheka kwamangqamuzana alezi zinhlanganisela elebhu futhi zizenze zibe namandla noma zisebenze kangcono. Lesi kwakuyisiqalo sekhemikhali yemvelo nendlela u-Bayer asungula ngayo i-Aspirin (ngokuxhuma amagxolo e-Willow) kanye ne-Heroin (ngokusebenzisa i-opium kuma-poppies) (i-Hager 75; i-Kirsch ne-Ogas 69). Lokhu kwengeze isigaba esisha ku-ontology: izinhlanganisela. Ngempumelelo entsha ngayinye yesayensi, ukuqonda kwethu umhlaba wemvelo kwavela, futhi sabuyekeza i-ontology yethu ngokufanele.

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ezokwelapha zakha i-ontology enezingqimba, lapho ikilasi ngalinye elisha lingazange lithathele indawo yangaphambili kodwa liyelula. I-ontology yakhula yahlanganisa amagciwane ngemva kokuba ososayensi uFritz Schaudinn no-Erich Hoffmann bethole ukuthi imbangela eyinhloko ye-syphilis kwakuyi-bacterium ebizwa ngokuthi. I-Treponema pallidum. Safunda amagciwane zazitholakala cishe yonke indawo futhi ezinye zazo zingabulala amagciwane, njenge-penicillin, ngakho-ke amagciwane engezwa emcabangweni wethu.

Safunda ukuthi i-DNA iqukethe ufuzoefaka ikhodi amaprotheniezisebenzisana nazo izinqubo zebhayoloji futhi izici eziyingozi. Yonke inqubekelaphambili enkulu kwezokwelapha yengeza izigaba ezintsha zezinto ekuqondeni kwethu okwabelwana ngakho futhi kwasiphoqa ukuthi sicabange ngendlela lawo makilasi asebenzisana ngayo. Kudala ngaphambi kwamakhompyutha, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kwase kwakhiwe i-ontology enezingqimba. Amagrafu olwazi awazange ethule le ndlela yokucabanga; bamane bayinikeze i-formal, computational substrate.

Namuhla, sine-ontology ye-anatomy (Uberon), izakhi zofuzo (Gene Ontology), izinhlanganisela zamakhemikhali (ChEBI) kanye namakhulu ezinye izizinda. Amakhosombe afana ne-BioPortal kanye ne-OBO Foundry anikeza ukufinyelela kuma-ontologies we-biomedical angaphezu kwenkulungwane.

Amagama alawulwayo

Lapho isigaba sezinto sesichaziwe, imithi yaqala ngokushesha ukuqamba nokubhala zonke izimo eyayingayithola. Ososayensi bahle kakhulu ekwenzeni ikhathalogi nasekuchazeni izimo zamakilasi. De materia medica, i-pharmacopoeia yokuqala, yaqedwa ngo-70 CE. Kwakuyincwadi enezitshalo ezingaba ngu-600 kanye nemithi elinganiselwa ku-1000. Lapho osokhemisi beqala ukusebenza ngama-organic compounds elebhu, bakha izinkulungwane zama-molecule amasha ayedinga ukufakwa ohlwini. Ekuphenduleni, ivolumu yokuqala ye- I-Beilstein Handbook ye-Organic Chemistry yakhululwa ngo-1881. Le ncwajana yenza ikhathalogi yazo zonke izinhlanganisela eziphilayo ezaziwayo, ukusabela kwayo kanye nezimpawu zayo, futhi yakhula yaba nezigidi zezinto ezifakiwe.

Le phethini iphinda kuwo wonke umlando wezokwelapha. Ngaso sonke isikhathi lapho ukuqonda kwethu umhlaba wemvelo kuba ngcono, futhi kwenezelwa isigaba esisha ku-ontology, ososayensi baqala ukuhlela zonke izimo zalelo klasi. Ngemva kokuthola kukaLouis Pasteur ngo-1861 ukuthi amagciwane abangela izifo, abantu baqala ukuhlela zonke izinhlobo zezifo ababengazithola. Ngo-1923, inguqulo yokuqala ye Incwadi kaBergey ye-Determinative Bacteriology yanyatheliswa, eyayiqukethe izinhlobo zamabhaktheriya ezingavamile ezingaba yinkulungwane.

Iphethini efanayo iphindwe ngokutholakala kwezakhi zofuzo, amaprotheni, izici eziyingozi, nemiphumela emibi. Namuhla, sinamagama acebile alawulwayo ezimo nezinqubo (SNOMED CT), izifo (ICD 11), imiphumela emibi (MedDRA), izidakamizwa (RxNorm), izinhlanganisela (CheBI nePubChem), amaprotheni (UniProt), kanye nezakhi zofuzo (NCBI Gene). Iningi lezinkampani ezinkulu zekhemisi zisebenza nenqwaba yalezi zinhlamvu zamagama ezilawulwa yizinkampani zangaphandle.

Ngokudidayo, ama-ontologies namagama alawulwayo avame ukuhlanganiswa ekusebenzeni. Amagama amakhulu alawulwayo ngokuvamile aqukethe izibonelo ezivela kumakilasi amaningi kanye nemodeli ye-semantic engasindi (i-ontology) ehlobene nazo. I-SNOMED CT, isibonelo, ihlanganisa izimo zezifo, izimpawu, izinqubo, kanye nokutholwe komtholampilo, kanye nobudlelwano obuchazwe ngokusemthethweni obufana unenhloso futhi ngenxa ye. Ngokwenza kanjalo, ihlanganisa isilulumagama esilawulwayo nesakhiwo se-ontological, esebenza ngempumelelo njengegrafu yolwazi ngokwayo.

Imithethonqubo

Ukulandela ubuthi obuningi obabulala abantu abayi-107 ngenxa ye-“elixir” elungiselelwe ngokungafanele ngo-1937, uhulumeni wase-US wanika i-Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amandla okulawula angeziwe (Kirsch 97). I-Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ka-1938 yayinezidingo zokuthi izidakamizwa kufanele zilebulwe kanjani futhi zazidinga ukuthi abakhiqizi bezidakamizwa bathumele idatha yokuphepha kanye nesitatimende “sokusetshenziswa okuhlosiwe” ku-FDA. Lokhu kwasiza kakhulu i-US ukuthi igweme inhlekelele ye-thalidomide ngasekupheleni kwawo-1950 eYurophu, lapho i-tranquilizer yanikezwa abesifazane abakhulelwe ukuze belaphe ukukhathazeka, ukungakwazi ukulala, nokugula kwasekuseni – naphezu kokungakaze kuhlolwe kwabesifazane abakhulelwe. Lokhu kubangele “inhlekelele yezokwelapha enkulu kunazo zonke ezake zaba khona”, lapho izinkulungwane zabesifazane zaphuphunyelwa yizisu futhi kwazalwa izingane ezingaphezu kuka-10,000 zinokukhubazeka okukhulu.

Nakuba i-US ikugwema kakhulu lokhu ngenxa yokuqapha kombuyekezi we-FDA, iphinde yadalula izikhala ohlelweni. Manje kudingeka Izichibiyelo ze-Kekauver-Harris ku-Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ngo-1962. ubufakazi ukuthi izidakamizwa zaziphephile futhi zisebenza kahle. Amandla anda e-FDA ngo-1938, futhi futhi ngo-1962, kwaphoqa ukunakekelwa kwezempilo ukuthi kufane nencazelo yamagama. Izinkampani zezidakamizwa ziphoqelekile ukuthi zivumelane ngezinkomba (ukuthi umuthi uhloselwe ini), izimo (umuthi welapha), imiphumela emibi (iziphi ezinye izimo ezihlotshaniswe nalo muthi) kanye nemiphumela yomtholampilo. Ukwenyuka kwengcindezi yokulawula kuphinde kwadinga izifundo eziphindaphindekayo, ezilawulwa kahle kuzo zonke izimangalo ezenziwe ngomuthi. Umthetho awuzange ufune nje izidakamizwa eziphephile; yayifuna incazelo ehlanganyelwe.

Idatha yokubuka

Lezi zinguquko zokulawula azizange nje zithinte izinqubo zokugunyaza; ngokuyisisekelo balolonge kabusha indlela okubhekwa ngayo kwezokwelapha, kwahlelwa, futhi kwaqhathaniswa ngayo. Ukwenza ubufakazi bomtholampilo buqhathaniswe, bubuyekezeke, futhi buphindaphindeke, izindinganiso zedatha yezivivinyo zomtholampilo zahlanganiswa ngezinhlangano ezifana ne-Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium (CDISC). I-CDISC ichaza ukuthi ukubonwa kwemitholampilo, izindawo zokugcina, kanye nezibalo zabantu kumele zimelelwe kanjani ukuze kubuyekezwe ngokomthetho. Ngokunjalo, i-FDA yaguqula amagama asetshenziswayo afakwe ohlwini lwamagama alawulwayo ukusuka ekusebenzeni okuhle kakhulu kuya kokuphoqelekile.

Ukusebenzisana kwangaphambi kokuncintisana

Enye yezinto ezivumelayo eziholele ekutheni ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kulawule kumagrafu olwazi ukusebenzisana kwangaphambi kokuncintisana. Umsebenzi omningi wokunakekelwa kwezempilo usekelwe kusayensi yemvelo efana nebhayoloji nekhemistri ephathwa njengenzuzo yomphakathi. Izinkampani zisaqhudelana ngemikhiqizo, kodwa iningi libheka ingxenye enkulu yocwaningo lwazo “lokuncintisana ngaphambilini.” Izinhlangano ezifana ne-Pistoia Alliance zisiza lokhu kubambisana ngokuhlinzeka ngezinkundla ezingathathi hlangothi ukuze ziqondaniswe ne-semantics eyabiwe nengqalasizinda (bona isigaba samazinga wedatha ngezansi).

Uxhaso lukahulumeni

Uxhaso lukahulumeni lube lubalulekile ekwakheni ingqalasizinda yolwazi lwezempilo. Ohulumeni nezikhungo zocwaningo zomphakathi batshale imali eningi ekudaleni nasekugcinweni kwe-ontology, amagama alawulwayo, kanye nedatha enkulu yokuqaphela okungekho nkampani eyodwa engakwazi ukukhokhela ukwakha iyodwa. Ama-ejensi afana ne-National Institutes of Health (I-NIH) ngezimali eziningi zalezi zimpahla njengezimpahla zomphakathi, zishiya ukunakekelwa kwezempilo nesisekelo solwazi esicebile, esivulekile esilungele ukuxhunywa futhi kucatshangwe ngokusebenzisa amagrafu olwazi.

Izindinganiso zedatha

Ukunakekelwa kwezempilo nakho kwamukele izindinganiso zedatha evulekile kusenesikhathi, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ulwazi olwabiwe lungamelwa futhi luphinde lusetshenziswe kuwo wonke amasistimu nabathengisi. Amazinga avela ku- I-World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) yenza ulwazi lwezokwelapha lufundeke emshinini futhi lusebenzisane, okuvumela amamodeli e-semantic ukuthi kwabelwane ngawo ngaphandle kwanoma iyiphi isistimu eyodwa noma umthengisi. Ngokugxilisa incazelo kumazinga avulekile kunezinhlelo zobunikazi, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kunikeze amandla amagrafu olwazi ukuthi asebenze njengengqalasizinda okwabelwana ngayo, ephila isikhathi eside kunokusebenzisa okukodwa. Amazinga aqinisekisa ukuthi incazelo ingasinda ekuthuthukisweni kwesistimu, izinguquko zabathengisi, kanye namashumi eminyaka obunzima bezobuchwepheshe.

Isiphetho

Ayikho kulezi zici iyodwa echaza ukuvuthwa kokunakekelwa kwezempilo; wukusebenzelana kwabo phakathi namashumi eminyaka—amagama okwakhiwa kwe-ontology, ubufakazi bokuqinisa umthetho, ukuxhasa ngezimali ingqalasizinda eyabiwe, kanye nezindinganiso ezivumela ukusetshenziswa kabusha—okwenze amagrafu olwazi angenakugwenywa kunokuba abe ngokuzikhethela. Kudala ngaphambi kwe-AI yesimanje, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kwatshala imali ukuze kuvunyelwane ngokuthi zisho ukuthini izinto nokuthi okubonwayo kufanele kuhunyushwe kanjani. Engxenyeni yokugcina yalolu chungechunge, sizohlola ukuthi kungani ezinye izimboni eziningi zingenazo lezi zimo—nokuthi yini ezingaboleka ngokweqiniso endleleni yokunakekelwa kwezempilo.

Mayelana nombhali: USteve Hedden uyiNhloko Yokuphathwa Komkhiqizo kwa-TopQuadrant, lapho ehola khona isu le-EDG, inkundla yegrafu yolwazi nokuphathwa kwemethadatha. Umsebenzi wakhe ugxile ekuhlanganiseni ukuphathwa kwedatha yebhizinisi kanye ne-AI ngokusebenzisa i-ontologies, i-taxonomies, nobuchwepheshe be-semantic. USteve ubhala futhi akhulume njalo ngamagrafu olwazi, kanye nendima eguqukayo ye-semantics ezinhlelweni ze-AI.

I-Bibliography

Hager, Thomas. Izidakamizwa Eziyishumi: Ukuthi Izitshalo, Izimpushana, namaphilisi Okuwumise Kanjani Umlando Wezokwelapha. U-Harry N. Abrams, 2019.

Isaacson, Walter. I-Code Breaker: U-Jennifer Doudna, Ukuhlelwa KweGene, kanye Nekusasa Lohlanga Lwabantu. U-Simon & Schuster, 2021.

Kirsch, Donald R., kanye no-Ogi Ogas. Abazingeli Bezidakamizwa: Ukufuna Okungenakwenzeka Kokuthola Imithi Emisha. I-Arcade, 2017.